FORENSIC ACCOUNTING Money Laundering and organized Finance

Criminological ACCOUNTING Money Laundering and sorted out Finance Tax evasion represents a genuine danger to people, organizations, money related frameworks, markets and governments as this monetary wrongdoing influence the soundness of individuals and destruct the advancement of a nation, for instance creating nations loses billions consistently to nations such a Switzerland. In the ongoing years White Collar wrongdoing has become the likely danger to the proceeded with presence of business people economy , which currently power the worldwide and local government start to recognize that illegal tax avoidance has become a danger to the worldwide economy improvement, monetary frameworks just as to the worldwide network. Because of the developing of composed wrongdoing, for example, human dealing, tranquilize dealing, fear mongering and tax avoidance. Tax evasion is accepted to be the third business by some scholarly scientists, with an expected 2% to 5% of gross local items (GDP) of the world. This article will likewise give a writing audit so as to more readily comprehend the speculations of illegal tax avoidance and the jobs and obligations of expert bodies. Which additionally incorporate the audit of universal and national approaches and enactment systems intended to forestall tax evasion? Last the finding and proposals of this article plainly shows proof which recommend that experts are vectors and guides of illegal tax avoidance, in this manner, such unlawful is by all accounts made simple by different callings who team up and add to this developing issue, in especially the banks, proficient bodies, for example, Auditors, Accountants and Lawyers, are contended to assume a critical job in smoothing the advancement for cash washes to disguise the returns of their degenerate exercises Presentation This examination will endeavor to look at the connection between tax evasion and Fraud, just as its worldwide system and the earnestness of these wrongdoings impacts in the worldwide economy and the social ramifications for the global network. Moreover, put in plan words the issue of tax evasion in the UK, thinking about whether against illegal tax avoidance laws presented in the previous decades has in some why improved the control of this crime. Summers (2000), states that the noticeable reality of tax evasion is a quality of sorted out wrongdoing with scientist and scholastic evaluating that the illegal tax avoidance create about US$100 billion; while the British Intelligence assessed that the aggregate sum being washed yearly is about US$500 billion..The unlawful medication exchange alone is assessed to produce about US$300 billion of which a huge part would require washing; this is additionally bolstered by Wolfensohn (2002). As there are numerous investigations that basically analyze tax evasion and the elements that add to illegal tax avoidance and so forth, there are as yet rare examinations really investigating the variables that add to the expansion of tax evasion in creating nations and coordinate to whether created nations lecturing for guidelines and checking tax evasion to the remainder of the world , while overlooking their commitment in advancing this mind boggling wrongdoing in creating nations circuitous and direct. Issue proclamation White Collar wrongdoing has become the expected danger to the proceeded with presence of business people economy. Illegal tax avoidance for example is expected to take an enormous bit of professional wrongdoing worldwide, as measurements anticipate that nearly 5% of the world total national output (GDP) is lost to tax evasion every year (IMF, Website ). Examination point and goals The essential target of this paper is to investigate and recognize the level that supports the administration of illegal tax avoidance, taking a gander at both purpose of perspectives (Developed Countries viewpoint and creating nations perspective), and estimating the forestalling of tax evasion. Additionally as to give remark on the exactness to whether the join battle endeavors are reasonable. Exploration strategy The current investigation is an endeavor to investigate and clarify the worldwide lawful frameworks in battling illegal tax avoidance and extortion the lawful structure in the worldwide scale. The technique of this examination will accumulate data from auxiliary sources, which are as of now in distribution, for example, scholastically diaries, books, proficient articles, the web and some other distributions (Sekaran, 1992). Moreover, the examination will put forth an attempt to discover the importance of the data in order to conceivable present properly, to investigate a portion of the elements that are a piece of the reason to tax evasion and misrepresentation. Along these lines as the investigation will be just founded on distributed auxiliary data we will arrive at a resolution that doesn't highlight our own feeling however the basically audit of the finish of the past examinations in this have closed. Suppositions made in this report As the meaning of tax evasion comprises a scope of dynamic crimes, this investigation make suspicion that tax evasion incorporates dealing, misrepresentation, defilement and fear based oppression as every one of these wrongdoings share a typical component, which lead to continues of unlawful being washed somehow or another or another. Consequently, all these previously mentioned violations are to be illegal tax avoidance for this investigation. Examination Outline The primary segment of this paper will give a short presentation of the goals and presumptions made all through the article, just as endeavor to present the exploration question and give a diagram of the branch of knowledge. This will be trailed continuously segment, which audits past examinations and the pundits of the finishes of these investigations. Area three will at that point quickly impart the speculations of tax evasion and the components that cause illegal tax avoidance creating nations, trailed by a short history and the definition acknowledged by this exposition. Segment four will give proof found by this investigation and a fundamentally recommendations. At long last segment five will arrive at a resolution. Writing Review So as to comprehend the present and fate of illegal tax avoidance, it is imperative to initially give a concise clarification of the foundation history of its starting point. As indicated by Bosworth et al, (1994), illegal tax avoidance began in the USA during the 1930s, Notwithstanding the way that there are a few distributions concentrates in the writing of basically inspecting the branch of knowledge, their perspective appear to focus on the lawful and administrative structure, adding to breaking down the phases of money situation or investigating causes and cures of enactments that add to tax evasion, nonetheless, there is minimal done, at the end of the day various exact examinations are somewhat restricted to contemplate whether there is a linkage between the creating and created nations, and if are there any exercises learned? As indicated by an investigation by Wolfensohn (2002), expressed that in any event US$1trillion is accepted to washed each year utilizing continuously more profoundly created strategies, for example, the wiring move of assets across visitors, furthermore these perplexing techniques include utilizing administrations and exhortation of experts such budgetary counsels and bookkeepers (Sikka, 2003; Arnold and Sikka, 2001; Aloba, 2002; Bakre, 2007;). Mitchell et al., (1996) study uncovered activities completed by a portion of these experts and organizations in Accounting, for example, Jackson Company; Grant Thornton Partners; Coopers and Lybrand; and a bureau serve in the UK government, who were totally up to speed in tax evasion of unlawful moving cash from AGIP to Kinz Joallier SARL. The expert body of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW) was given with the case to research the expert unfortunate behavior of its individuals. Despite the fact that the High Court had recently managed the case and gave its own judgment, which found that the two Accountants who were up to speed in the demonstration of tax evasion, the courts deciding expressed that these experts really realized that their activity were illegal and clearly laundering cash, the Judge saw them as blameworthy, anyway the expert body itself (ICAEW) apparently didn't see it a similar route as the Court did. Besides when the examination and disciplinary board of the ICAEW was scrutinized it contended in resistance that it was not given deficient proof to warrant the bringing of a disciplinary body of evidence against any of its individuals for this situation of illegal tax avoidance (see Letter of May 9, 1994). Then again, BCC I researched the worldwide conclusion in 1991 and revealed a huge measure of crimes incorporating tax evasion in various nations around the globe, which included pay off of government authorities, arms dealing, the deals of atomic advancements, the help of fear based oppression, tax avoidance, and carrying tasks, just as gigantic money related fakes (Arnold and Sikka, 2001). As indicated by the 400 page report by Arnaud Montebourge (2001) The City is an invulnerable fortification with a status, rights and custom of its own, a shut universe where each lender, financier or specialist picks quietness regardless of anything else. The report expressed that it had taken the British an uncommon measure of time to react to Swiss clues before requesting 19 banks to freeze supports connected to previous Nigerian ruler, Sanni Abacha [BBC News, October 10, 2001]. A Harvard-taught Colombian business analyst, Franklin Jurado, utilized the administrations of bookkeepers to wash $36 million in benefits, from US cocaine deals for the late Colombian medication master Jose Santacruz-Londono, by wiring it out of Panama, through the workplaces of Merrill Lynch and other money related organizations, to Europe. In three years, he opened in excess of 100 records in 68 banks in nine nations: Austria, Denmark, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, and Monaco. A portion of the records were opened in the names of Santacruzs courtesans

Choose a case study organisation. Make an evaluation of the reward Essay

Pick a contextual analysis association. Make an assessment of the prize execution issue. Offer proposals that are intelligent, reasonable and booked. Offer a few costings - Essay Example With respect to the social variables, issues, for example, migration, resettlement, and neediness will undoubtedly surface. Work relations in this setting allude to the business connection among boss and the worker(s). Perkins and White (2011) contend that it assumes a significant job in the inspiration of the workers, constructing the organization’s notoriety; guaranteeing that there is productivity in the activities; and amplification of yield or creation and overall revenues (Rose, 2008). There are two fundamental ways to deal with work connection. Wilkinson &Townsend (2011) expounds that these methodologies are through either aggregate bartering or individual dealing. Singular bartering is where the representatives independently haggle about working conditions and compensations with the businesses while in the aggregate dealing approach they use worker's organizations to haggle for their benefit. There is a rising pattern in the workforce that will in general make it adaptable. Firms are progressively utilizing the method of utilizing low maintenance laborers or impermanent specialists rather than lasting laborers (Daniels, 2008). This adaptability is seen to be modest as it empowers organizations to fulfill the need of buyers and lessens cost of preparing. Be that as it may, its burdens are absence of security and viable correspondence. Laborers can impact the tasks of organizations through the idea of worker cooperation and mechanical majority rules system. Representative investment envelops situation where choices made by associations include the contributions of the representative while modern majority rules system involves the modalities laborers can consolidate to impact choices. In any associations, questions and clashes will undoubtedly surface. The modalities organizations or firms receive that assume a key job in giving solution for the debates/clashes. Much of the time these questions exude from issues, for example, the working,

Residence Options

Residence Options A big thing I was looking forward to in college was living on my own and having my own place to call my “home” for the next four years of my life.   Prior to coming to college, I wish I knew more about my living options, so in this post I’ve put together a little summary of the different residence halls you can live in and different apartments and locations you can sign after your freshman year!   Freshman Year: Residence Halls Residence halls are categorized as either university housing or private certified housing. University Housing University housing has 24 different units scattered throughout campus. Urbana North residence halls are all located within a 1o minute walk to the Quad and include specialty restaurants in their dining halls. Urbana South is a little further away, but conveniently is right next to multiple bus routes that can take you anywhere around campus! The Ikenberry Commons, or more commonly known as the Six Pack, is where a large population of our freshmen live and houses a large dining hall facility shared by all the residence halls surrounding it. Wassaja Hall, the newest addition to University Housing residence halls Private Certified Housing (PCH) There are 11 different PCH units around campus. These halls are privately owned but approved by the university. PCH offers dining plans and a more suite-style layout. Depending on what you are looking for, some PCH halls are religiously affiliated, some have private suite-style bathrooms, and each hall is located in a unique area so you can find one which best suits your taste! Courtesy of Private Certified Housing Sophomore Year Beyond After freshman year, you are free to choose to live wherever you want! You can continue living in university housing and PCH units, or you can move into your own apartment! The resource I found the most helpful in my apartment searches is the Housing Fair that is held in the Illini Union. Realtor companies set up booths and give students information on the different locations they own, pricing, amenities, etc. It is a great way to gain a lot of general information about the apartment options that are available to you around campus! Finding the right place to live can be overwhelming at times, but there are lots of resources out there to help you find the best fit for you! Living in a new location every year has been a great experience for me, and Ive loved every bit of it. And I hope you, too, can find a place you can call home here at Illinois! Kripa Class of 2020 I'm majoring in Psychology, minoring in Spanish, and pursuing a pre-dental track. It seems like I’m all over the place, but that’s what I like about college! I get to choose to study what I’m interested in, and I’m happy to be doing just that at Illinois.

The Role of the Judicial Branch of Government in the US Free Essay Example, 500 words

Although the judicial branch is one of the most powerful in the US, not everyone is in agreement with this fact. This is because according to Americans, persons elected by citizens run a country, but this is not the case since most members of the judicial branch such as federal justices and judges are because of appointment (American Government). This essay aims at relaying information touching upon judiciary s outright political involvement as well as whether its independence is indispensable. Are Judges Political? In my opinion, judges are political; this is evident in their numerous involvements on matters such as abortion, criminal rights and environmental protection whereby presidents have always dealt with certain types of judges. According to Sunstein (3), the Supreme Court rarely reviews decisions made by lower courts, this is because according to the supreme courts, it is only their decisions that matter. Therefore, the court of appeal ends up playing a major role in not only settling disputes but also deterring the directions of law (Sunstein 3). It is due to this that votes from lower court nominees normally pay a major role in national debates. The debate on judges being political has been in existence for decades. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of the Judicial Branch of Government in the US or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now A number of polls held in the US portray judges as impartial and unfair when it comes to making rulings (Bybee 8). Thirteen surveys on public opinion conducted from 1989-2009 revealed that most people have no faith in the judicial branch. This is because according to the survey, whereas 70 percent of those interviewed claimed that politics was largely at work in the judiciary, 67 percent also stated that state judges were impartial (Bybee 8). Republican and Democrat AppointmentsAccording to Bar and Zussman (3), votes from judges are normally influenced by the president s party affiliation. This is because, just like professors, judges also make decisions whereby they have no major direct stake though they materially affect others. Studies show that votes conducted by judges appointed by Republican presidents normally differ consistently with those of judges appointed by democrats presidents. Judge RankingsIn my opinion, judges who rank in the minority normally behave differently compared to their high-ranking counterparts holding top edges such as 2-1 or 3-0. This is because since low ranking judges do not have much power such as those granted to others, this makes them more loyal hence are rarely involved in political activities. Whereas judges ranked as a minority have limited powers in their hands, high-ranking judges have more powers to the extent that apart from their ability to declare a federal law as unconstitutional, they are also capable of overruling them (American Government). It is clear from readings that nomination of judges who rank as minority normally takes long before presidential confirmation. Although the president takes the nominations, in most cases these judges rarely do they receive their confirmations (Asmussen 1). Is judicial independence an indispensable element? In my opinion, judicial independence is an indispensable element. This is because by the judicial system is independent, judges are in a position to come up with decisions regarding freedom, rights and duties of not only natural but also legal persons in their jurisdictions ( Legislationline ). In the case of decision-making, judges ought to have freedom so that they are in a position to make impartial decisions in accordance with the law. ConclusionFor decades there have been numerous debates regarding the roles conducted by the judicial branch in the US. According to many Americans, through surveys conducted, many American judges are not only political but also unfair in most of their rulings. Judges involvement is rife to the extent that their votes normally depend on the president s party affiliation. According to studies, there are normally consistent differences when it comes to votes conducted by republican and democrat judges. In my opinion, judges ought to be independent, this enables them to make proper decisions on matters regarding peoples rights and freedom.

Average National SAT Scores for 2013

More than a million high school students registered for the SAT for 2013. If youd like to know how your cohorts did, here are some results from the national SAT scores for 2013. Overall SAT Scores for 2013 These are the mean, or average, scores of all students who took the SAT from the fall of 2012 through June 2013, by section (they are identical to the the scores from the year before):   Here are the mean scores for all testers by section: Overall: 1498Critical Reading: 496Mathematics: 514Writing: 488 (subscores: multiple-choice: 48.1 / essay: 7.3) SAT Scores by Gender Here are the years scores separated by gender: Critical Reading:Males: 499Females: 494 Mathematics:Males: 531Females: 499 Writing:Males: 482Females: 493 SAT Scores by Reported Annual Income The results indicate consistently that students from wealthier families score higher on the SAT than kids from families with lower incomes. This doesnt mean that higher incomes produce smarter kids. Parents with more wealth might be more willing to purchase SAT prep  or retakes of the test. Here are the results: $0 - $20,000: 1326$20,000 - $40,000: 1402$40,000 - $60,000: 1461$60,000 - $80,000: 1497$80,000 - $100,000: 1535$100,000 - $120,000: 1569$120,000 - $140,000: 1581$140,000 - $160,000: 1604$160,000 - $200,000: 1625$200,000 and more: 1714 SAT Scores by Ethnicity There is no causal relationship between ethnicity and scores, but there are different results based on ethnicity: American Indian or Alaska Native: 1427Asian, Asian-American or Pacific Islander: 1645Black or African-American: 1278Mexican or Mexican-American: 1355Puerto Rican: 1354Other Hispanic, Latino, or Latin-American: 1354White: 1576Other: 1501No response: 1409 To spot trends, you may compare all the above data to the 2012 SAT results.   Other SAT Score Categories There are other categories of mean SAT scores, including the  average SAT scores for students entering the  top public schools  and the  scores for the top private schools.   2013 SAT Scores Summary These statistics represent the mean, but not the individual. Having nothing in common with the groups scoring the highest on the SAT doesnt mean that you cant secure a top-notch score. If you havent taken the SAT or are planning to retake it, there are  free SAT practice quizzes  and free SAT apps  you can use to help prepare yourself. Another authority suggests these additional ways of getting ready: Know the test structure.Write practice essays.Ensure that you have a calculator and spare batteries.Know when to guess on a question and when to skip it entirely.Get a good nights sleep.

Speaking Spanish Has Always Been A Struggle Free Essays

She played a huge role in teaching me how to speak Spanish. The only language she would speak to me while growing up was Spanish. As I grew up I never realized the method that was being used which was direct method until now. We will write a custom essay sample on Speaking Spanish Has Always Been A Struggle or any similar topic only for you Order Now She was teaching me on how to communicate with others while speaking another language. My grandmother only spoke to me in Spanish though I had a rough time understanding and trying to speak it back to her, she was determined to teach me. The role of the teacher who in this case is my grandmother is to teacher me on how to become a communicator. Not merely to learn vocabulary or grammar but to know whom, when and what to say or how to ay certain things. The role of my grandmother was to acquire a learning system which was not focused too much on how to write or learn vocabulary but to learn the proper way to use Spanish first. The students role is to accept the corrections as well as absorbing and putting my Spanish speaking skills to test. Though till this day I am not that great at speaking my second language, know the basic fundamentals of this language, my language in this case would be â€Å"Spangling†. This is where I incorporate both Spanish and English while speaking to Spanish speakers, which my grandmother isn’t too fond of. One characteristic that is good for teaching Spanish would be proficiency, in order to teach a foreign language you must know the language yourself. One must learn how to speak it, read it as well as write it. It was easy for my grandmother to teach me because she was well educated in that language. She was able to exhibit a high level of accuracy in Spanish because of her background with the language. As for the learning process I was able to surround myself with other family members to communicate and improve in my foreign language. As well as watching my grandmothers intense Spanish wows which educated me more and taught me on how to express myself. The nature interaction between my grandmother and I wasn’t too bad, though I struggled in the beginning as time went by I was able to learn it eventually, not as good as I had wished though. It was harder for my because growing up because had a New Yorker accent so for some words had a hard time saying in Spanish, and for that my grandmother made fun of me but thought it was adorable. Plenty of corrections were made during my process of learning Spanish which better my knowledge and understanding in this language. While learning Spanish it was pretty difficult and frustrating especially since I had an accent which was harder for me to comprehend in also my sisters made fun of me because of it Especially when it came to rolling the Or’s that was the most difficult part of Spanish was being able to roll letters. As well as learning on how to speak very fast in my language, normally all Spanish speakers have a tendency to speak very fast, still haven’t gotten the hang of that but I’m learning. When speaking Spanish I have made plenty of mistakes but I was able to remind myself that it’s okay to make mistakes, but to ask ND seek help from people who are great in speaking Spanish. Speaking Spanish in my household was and still is a must, the only way to communicate to my grandmother was through speaking Spanish. Especially since it is my second language it is important that I know how to speak it. Am also able to expand my horizons and know more and how my language works. It’s not just about learning a new language and how to speak it but you learn about its culture as well. It’s important so we can empathic with people in our country who struggle to learn English, so therefore learning more engages and about different cultures will help us develop more knowledge of other languages. The area of language that is emphasized are vocabulary and grammatical structure. Vocabulary is very important for every language especially so you’re able to use it in the correct form. I know for myself whenever use the incorrect word while speaking to my grandmother she looks at me with a confused face and waits for me to correct myself. Vocabulary is an important factor because you want your sentences understandable while using the right terms. As for grammatical, its important to govern the compositions of harass, clauses and words so you can acquire a better sense of how to use these while speaking to an individual. As a child my grandmother would have me repeat every word after her in Spanish and once we did that, she told me what each word meant. Of course we started off with the easy terms first such as animals, fruits and parts on our bodies. As we did those every day as a child my vocabulary increased and little by little began to understand the basics, once we did that we moved onto the harder stuff. Learning different terms helped me improve in this engage and gave me a better sense on how to use them and when to use them. As only able to speak Spanish whenever I would see my grandmothers, or went to visit people in my country. My native language which is English is Of course my strongest skill but speaking Spanish has given me the opportunity to explore more in my foreign language and not rely so much on my native language. The role of my native language should not be used when learning another language, should be able to get out of the habit of not depending so much on it and being able to be open to learning different languages especially my own language. How to cite Speaking Spanish Has Always Been A Struggle, Papers

Poems Poetry and Film Karate Kid free essay sample

‘An individual’s interaction with others and the world around them can enrich or limit their experience of belonging’ Discuss this view with details reference to your prescribed text and ONE other related text of your own choosing. Belonging is to feel an affliction with someone or something. An individual’s interaction with others and the world around them can enrich or limit their experience of belonging.The Poems â€Å"Feliks Skrzynecki† and St Patrick’s College written by Peter Skrzynecki explore the different and powerful influences that impact on an individual’s sense of belonging and the different aspects of belonging effectively, using poetic and literary techniques to convey meaning. The Film Karate Kid, directed by Harald Zwart also explores similar aspects of belonging effectively, through the use of film technique.In the poem â€Å"Feliks Skrzynecki† Peter Skrzynecki, presents a detailed poetic representation of his father Feliks, using visual imagery, poetic and literary technique to help shape the readers perceptions of his father whilst also informing the reader of the relationship Peter Skrzynecki shared with his father Feliks. Feliks identity is represented as a strong, determined and hardworking man who’s personality is marked by inner strength – â€Å"alert, brisk and silent† in that Peter admires.Peter represents his admiration using a Possessive Pronoun in the First Stanza – â€Å"My† is seen as the possessive pronoun to establish the respected relationship between father son Peter also suggests his â€Å"Five years of forced labour† to further emphasis on his father’s inner strength and Peters admiration. Feliks Polish identity is a key component of his identity, which limited his experience of belonging after his migration. Peter speaks of his father’s reminiscences, experiences and cultural interactions shared with friends which enriched his sense of belonging- â€Å"Talking, they reminisced† â€Å"About farms where paddocks flowered with corn and wheat† â€Å"They were skilled in slaughtering† these were the elements that shaped his father’s early life, this is the life (world) that Peter feels alienated and excluded from. This exclusion is caused by the cultural divide of time, place and language in which Peter did not interact with, which cut Peter from the connection his father enjoys.Peter’s lack of interaction is also represented in Stanza 2 where he is seen as the observer of the situation rather than the participant, these acts where the reason of Peters questioning of his father’s dedication (belonging) – â€Å"I often wondered how he existed†. Peter has clearly represented his alienation, not because of migrations process itself b ut by being the son of a person who has taken on such a journey in his life to belong in a country other than his homelands.He observes and listens rather than participates, he acknowledges his father’s connection with his polish friends and with the garden but yet still is not able to share- â€Å"My father sits out the evening with his dog, smoking, watching stars and street lights come on, happy as I have never been† this quote using visual image illustrates that after a life of work Feliks is at rest with himself and his place in the present and seeing the past (watching stars) in the distance.Another poem which presents the interaction of an individual with the others and the world around them in which limited their experience of belonging is â€Å"St- Patricks College†. In this poem Skrzynecki uses literary techniques and imagery to puts forward a bleak portrait of his school life. Throughout the poem Skrzynecki uses a formal tone to present an unenthusiastic feel towards school.Skrzynecki’s attends this school because of his mother’s first impressions of the school uniform. The tone of â€Å"never thought† implies that she has not thought deeply of her choice, leading to a fast decision and being influenced by external appearances, â€Å"Impressed by the uniforms† for his mother believed â€Å"What was the best† but what he believed was just a superfitual education.Skrzynecki’s lack of interaction with the other and the world around him is presented effectively through the Catholicism of College,† Out Lady watched with outstretched arms†, Our lady is seen as a Statue with no spiritual significance as she simply â€Å"watched with outstretched arms† irony is used in this quote as Skrzynecki did not feel belonged or cared by â€Å"Our Lady† even though her â€Å"outstretched arms† were a iming to do this instead he felt no connection and disjointed.The interplay of light and dark is critical part in achieving idea of the lack of interaction with Skrzynecki and others or the world around him, which in this case is seen as the College. The interplay of light and dark is played throughout the poem, â€Å"Her face overshadowed by clouds† Skrzynecki uses imagery to convey the sense of belonging being covered with darkness. Her† is seen as Lady Mary in which he presents as a statue with â€Å"outstretched arms† that is supposed to make him feel belonged and connected with the college, yet her face â€Å"overshadowed by clouds† conveying his hope to belong being covered by darkness which signifies the lack of interaction with the college as he sees only darkness and no light as Lady Mary is the light of the school that is now overshadowed by darkness. Skrzynecki uses a tone of resentment when quoting â€Å"For eight years I walked Strathfield’s paths and streets, Played chasing up and down the stations ten rampsâ€Å", this creates a dreading effect to the reader to effectively emphasis the lack of interaction with others and the world around him he had, no sense of belonging to this place, no reference to him feeling included in the school, no positive references to friendly company or school spirit as he saw others as â€Å"Voices at bus stops†.The Simile â€Å"Like a foreign tourist† emphasises him as being an observer to nature and all the landmarks, with a lack of interaction with the world and others that surround him. This is used to emphasise his sense of alienation and displacement. The word â€Å"foreign† also suggests him being unable to share his thoughts or ideas and having not common links with others or the world around him and feeling isolated. Skrzynecki leaves this world (college) â €Å"Our lady still watching above, unchanged by eight years’ ith closed eyes†, this signifies the previous negative image indicating her as being blind, artificial and unseeing. It also implies that Skrzynecki felt no real spiritual interaction with his college (world), others or his faith. Another medium the explores the interaction of a young boy with the world and others around him that limited his experience of belonging is the film â€Å"Karate Kid† directed by Harald Zwart.

History I.A. Wilson’s Essay Sample free essay sample

Wilson’s 14 points was a address delivered by Woodrow Wilson ( president of America from 1913 – 1921 ) which subsequently turned into the footing upon which the pact of Versailles was made. His series of points outlined what the post-war epoch would be like. Wilson’s points were meant to halt another war from go oning and were really indulgent towards the Germans. who were defeated in World War 1. It is hence of import to see to what extent does Wilson’s 4th point in the 14 points represent the American government’s rules from 1914 – 1920? Fourth point: Adequate warrants given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. When look intoing this subject certain facets must be considered. These include how much support Wilson had received for his 14 points. whether or non Americans wanted to harshly punish Germany and if the authorities was willing to contend wars. This probe will be conducted by utilizing online. We will write a custom essay sample on History I.A. Wilson’s Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page written and primary beginnings including Paris 1919 by Margaret Macmillan. The First World War by Hew Strachan and Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman by Kendrick A. Clements. Part B ( Summary of Evidence ) How much support Wilson had received for his 14 points †¢ Wilson had efficaciously called for a Monroe philosophy of the universe and in this he represented the scruples of the American people. [ 1 ] †¢ WW1 was mostly caused in portion by a pre-war ammos race [ 2 ] †¢ Wilson brought the thought of self-government ( rights and autonomies of little states ) to Europe [ 3 ] †¢ The pact of Versailles was based on Harriet wilsons 14 points †¢ Republicans who made up a bulk in the senate by and large disagreed with the points [ 4 ] †¢ Most Americans were wary of foreign webs and Wilson found small support. [ 5 ] †¢ European Alliess owed $ 7 billion to the American authorities [ 6 ] †¢ The thought of American exceptionalism pervaded in the US – Americans being eager to put the universe to rights and ready to turn its dorsum in disdain if its message is ignored [ 7 ] †¢ Wilson took no republican party advisers with him to the Paris peace conference [ 8 ] †¢ A canvass by Literary Digest showed overpowering support among editors of newspapers and magazines for Wilson’s 14 points. [ 9 ] †¢ The 14 points expressed the long term involvements of western states [ 10 ] Whether or non Americans wanted to harshly punish Germany. †¢ Resulting from the pact of Versailles Germany had to: 1. Withdraw its frontiers. [ 11 ]2. Relinquish 25000 machine guns. 1700 aeroplanes. 5000 heavy weapon pieces and 3. 000 trench howitzers. [ 12 ] 3. Demilitarize the Rhine. [ 13 ] †¢ France and Great Britain wanted Germany to pay extended reparations. [ 14 ] †¢ A German Submarine had sunk a ship ( Lusitania ) incorporating 128 Americans in 1915. [ 15 ] †¢ The Zimmerman wire was a message from the Germans to Mexicans stating them to motivate war in southern America. [ 16 ] †¢ Wilson concerned about Americans desiring the obliteration of Germany [ 17 ] †¢ Wilson was under political force per unit area to enforce absolute resignation on the Germans. [ 18 ] If the authorities was willing to contend wars †¢ America had non gone into WW1 for district or retaliation. [ 19 ] †¢ America did non come in WW1 until April 1917. [ 20 ] †¢ America had gone to war against Spain and Mexico. [ 21 ] †¢ The American populace had grown weary of domestic and international campaigns. [ 22 ] †¢ Republicans believed that if the US were to fall in an association it should be with other democracies. non with a conference which threatened to pull the state into a ceaseless war. [ 23 ] Part C ( Evaluation of Sources ) Paris 1919 by Margaret Macmillan Margaret Macmillan is a professor and historiographer at the University of Oxford who has done extended research on the British Empire from the 19th century to the 20th century. She is known for plants such as Woman of the Raj and The Uneasy Century and has published the book Paris 1919 in 2001. This papers was written as a historical narration. specifically to give penetration into the events that happened in the 6 months taking up to the Paris Peace conference. As such it is peculiarly valuable since many old ages of both primary and secondary research have been done. and the narrative shows the ideas of President Wilson in the minute and taking up to the Paris Peace conference. Since this probe is looking at the extent to which Wilson’s 4th point represents the authorities it is of import to hold a beginning demoing the ideas of the leader of that authorities. Although. this beginning is limited in that it focuses chiefly on the Big Three. non other states holding anything to make with Wilson’s 14 points and it focuses excessively much on a little clip period of 6 months giving really small information beyond that. Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman by Kendrick A. Clements Kendrick Clements published his book Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman in 1987. Clements is presently a professor of history at the University of South Carolina and has done environmental and diplomatic research on American history. He has besides published plants such as William Jennings and Missionary Isolationist and wrote this life in order to demo the inside informations of Woodrow Wilson’s life. As a life it contains interesting information about President Wilson and his 14 points and this beginning is peculiarly effectual for this probe since it portrays Wilson’s actions and gives grounds as to why he acted in these ways. This beginning besides gives balance to the probe by conveying Forth an American point of position as compared to a British/Canadian position by Margaret MacMillan. It is nevertheless limited in that it does non supply much perspective besides this and tends to travel into excessively much item about apparently unimportant affairs. Mentions: [ 1 ] Elihu Root. â€Å"Elihu Root. Speech† . 4th March. 2012[ 2 ] Streich. Michael. American [ electronic mail protected ]/*December 15th 2010. Suite 101. March 5th 2012hypertext transfer protocol: //michael-streich. suite101. com/woodrow-wilsons-fourteen-points-a84500 gt ; [ 3 ] Margaret Macmillan. Paris 1919 ( New York: Random House. Inc. . 2001 ) . 9 [ 4 ] Coffey. Walter. American [ electronic mail protected ]/*December 15th 2010. Suite 101. March 5th 2012 lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //walter-coffey. suite101. com/woodrow-wilsons-fourteen-points-a297569 [ 5 ] Ibid [ 6 ] Margaret Macmillan. Paris 1919 ( New York: Random House. Inc. . 2001 ) . 10. [ 7 ] Ibid. 14[ 8 ] J. Perry Leavell. Jr. Wilson. World leaders past and present ( America: Chelsea House Publishers. 1987 ) . 88. [ 9 ] Ibid. 93.[ 10 ] Kendrick A. Clements. Woodrow Wilson. universe solon ( Chicago: G. K. Hall. 1987 ) . 212. [ 11 ] Hew Strachan. THE FIRST WORLD WAR ( New York: Penguin Group inc. . 2003 ) . 326 – 327 [ 12 ] Ibid[ 13 ] Ibid [ 14 ] â€Å"Lesson 4: Contending for Peace: The Fate of Wilson’s Fourteen Points. † EDSITEment. 4th March. 2012 [ 15 ] Jones. Steve. US foreign policy. New York Times Company. March 5th 2012 [ 16 ] Ibid[ 17 ] Kendrick A. Clements. Woodrow Wilson. universe solon ( Chicago: G. K. Hall. 1987 ) . 192. [ 18 ] Ibid[ 19 ] Margaret Macmillan. PARIS 1919. ( New York: Random House. Inc. . 2001 ) . 9. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jones. Steve. US foreign policy. New York Times Company. March 5th 2012 [ 22 ] Ibid. 10 – 11 [ 23 ] â€Å"Lesson 4: Contending for Peace: The Fate of Wilson’s Fourteen Points. † EDSITEment. 4th March. 2012 [ 24 ] Margaret Macmillan. PARIS 1919. ( New York: Random House. Inc. . 2001 ) . 152.

Death Penalty Essay

Death Penalty Essay Death Penalty Essay Stephanny Viana ENG 111-C2 Death Penalty 7/4/11 The death penalty has been a very controversial topic for quite some time. Many oppose it; however, many are for it. There have always been problems with the death penalty system, and are becoming more evident. â€Å"California was spending about $100 million a year on death penalty cases as of 2008 in state post-trial costs alone.† (Jost 2010 Pg.8) Also, many capital defendants are still receiving inadequate representation at trial and that many or even most death row inmates have little if any legal help in challenging their convictions or sentences afterward. (Jost 2010 pg.9) Capital punishment is cruel and unusual punishment and it is unconstitutional. Opponents of the death penalty say prosecutors may be seeking the death penalty less often because of the costs of a capital trial, sentencing and post-conviction proceedings. Not only are the prosecutors worried but the Jurors are too. The process of an actual death penalty is unreasonably expensive and adds $51 million an nually. (Jost 2010 pg.9) Many also worry about executing an innocent person. (Jost 2010 pg.1) Housing inmates on death row also costs $90,000 more per inmate per year than imprisonment in a maximum security facility. (Jost 2010 pg.9) In a study published in fall 2009, North Carolina alone could save nearly $11 million a year by abolishing capital punishment. (Jost 2010 pg.15) If all states would consider abolishing this inhumane punishment, the United States could save billions and invest in better safety, hire more police officers, and possibly remove these criminals off the streets. Programs that clearly benefit safety of society are being cut because of the budget crisis, but death penalty expenditures continue to rise. It is said to be one of the most expensive state programs, and it produces no measurable gain in public safety. The average police budget had to be cut, states are letting prisoners go early, curtailing ambulance services and closing schools. Cities like New York and Washington have been enormously successful in cutting murder rates without death penalty through programs like community policing and new technologies that focus on high-crime areas. They can execute perhaps one person per year at a cost of $10 million, or use the same money to hire 200 police officers. Over 99 percent of murders do not result in an execution. Those cases that do end in a death sentence are often overturned and frequently end in a life sentence. (Jost 2010 pg.22) These delays that create these preposterous costs are affected by the delays that lead to an actual execution. The Death Penalty Information Center claims that 119 people have been â€Å"released from death rows with evidence of their innocence† since 1973. The center calls these releases â€Å"exonerations† and counts 36 such cases just since 2000. (Jost 2005 pg.2) The reason for this revelation is due to the fact that innocent people were convicted and sentenced to death and in some cases came close to being executed. Many have thought of reducing the costs by removing moratoriums on the executions, however, investigations by Northwestern University journalism students and Chicago Tribune reporters were convinced that the state’s system from sending people to death row was â€Å"fraught with error.†(Jost 2005 pg.8) The Supreme Court became somewhat more receptive to death row inmates’ pleas by setting aside death sentences for mentally retarded, juvenile offenders, and in some individual cases because of racial discrimination, trials errors or inadequate legal representation. (Jost 2005 pg.13) The many errors made in court and the lack of moratoriums in certain cases helped improve today’s system. (Liebman pg.13) For example, In a Pennsylvania case, the court somewhat strengthened the requirement that defense lawyers investigate defendants’ background for evidence that could possibly prove their innocence. Also, In a Missouri case, the court ruled that the

The experiences of World War 1 and why many opposed it Essay

The experiences of World War 1 and why many opposed it - Essay Example The World War 1 made many people have varied experiences starting from the soldiers, their families, children and various races involved in the war. The War had a mental and physical effect to both the soldiers and their families. Physically, many soldiers and civilians died in the course of the war. Their families lost the source of income while the children lost their loved ones, (Shaw, 111). Mentally, trauma was the main effect. In this case, many people who saw the massive killings took a long time to get through the incidence. As such, psychologies argue that some soldiers and civilian suffered depression and extreme cases of trauma. The soldiers suffered severe injuries on their bodies that left them traumatized. The soldiers went through a ‘shell shock’, which is an emotional shock that was a s a result of the horrors they witnessed. The soldiers saw and heard many things while fighting in the trenches, as they witnessed other soldiers scream in pain and agony, as they literary waited for their turn. Most of the soldiers crumbled to pieces, while others improved but continued to experience nightmares for the longest time. Wilfred Edwards in his poem quoted some of the experiences â€Å"(Gas! Quick, boys-An ecstasy of fumbling,Fitting the awkward helmets just in time;But somebody still was stumbling and yelling out  And struggling like a man in fire or lime)...† Such an experience is horrifying and can make one have nightmares for the rest of his life even after the War ends.

Critical analysis the business environment of Mr. and Mrs. Yates Essay

Critical analysis the business environment of Mr. and Mrs. Yates Grocery stores - Essay Example They do not hold the store in selling popular products but rather have developed a distinct business differentiation by targeting that population which likes to buy European food items. This gives them a slightly different target market than the other grocery stores and super markets in the vicinity. The grocery stores are medium sized; the profits are dependent upon the number of sales made each day as they cannot be dependent upon a huge variety and array of products as there is limited space in the stores. The Yates believe that they are providing a service rather than just selling grocery to their customers; they believe in being knowledgeable about the grocery they are selling and they are well versed in their specification so that they can provide ample and astute guidance to their customers. In-spite of these fine aspects, the Yates have been suffering huge losses and mismanagement problems, this report struggles to identify the cause of these problems and offer solutions. We are going to analyze the operations, information, and quality management problems that the company is facing. For this we first need to establish what these concepts are: Operations management: Operations management is a branch of management that deals in overseeing and refining the business processes so that they incorporate optimization of resources (minimum use of resources and maximum output) and also make them apt at meeting customer needs. It concerns constructing new processes and redesigning old ones to make them more efficient and optimal. Information management: This concerns the collection and management of information from all the sources available; sorting useful information from the clutter and utilizing it in time to ensure the efficient and effective management of resources. Quality management: Quality management is ensured in any organization by catering to the following aspects: Quality planning Quality control Quality assurance Quality improvement If the organizat ion is adhering to these four aspects, not only in their product/services but also in all their processes and procedures, and ensuring continuous improvement, only then is it a quality organization. Now, this report will aim to find the discrepancies in the Yates grocery stores related to these concepts. The first tools being utilized to analyze the grocery store is: 1. PESTLE Analysis: The environment in which a business operates can be very dynamic and unpredictable; it contains the following aspects: 1.1. Political: The free trade policies that are being adopted by governments are a great benefit to the Yates as they have to import international food items. These no tariff policies greatly reduce the cost of the products. Any change in these policies will be a threat to the Yates. All businesses have to adhere by the rules and regulations established by the government for the working of a business, they include: agreements, MOU’s, charters etc. They are very important and have to be managed in order to maintain smooth running of the business (Kerzner 2009, p. 65-92). 1.2. Economical: Economic factors are a great concern for the Yates as they impact the buying behaviors of customers directly. The recent recession is a great example of how economy affects businesses. If the buying power of people reduces, they give priority to the necessities and do not divulge in unnecessary items such as foreign food

Managing Multi-Agency Working in Elderly Care

Managing Multi-Agency Working in Elderly Care Managing Collaboration Multi-Agency Working for older people’s services Executive summary and introduction Collaboration in the field of both welfare and healthcare, on one level, can be expedient, efficient and economical. On another, more practical level, it can be a minefield of legislative, practical and interpersonal difficulties. (Arblaster. L. et al 1998) This report will consider these aspects in direct consideration of collaboration of the various aspects of care related to the elderly. It has to be viewed as being within the spirit and the legislative restriction of the NHS Plan (DOH 2000) and therefore considers the methods of collaboration with the PCTs in some detail, and also in the spirit and legislative requirements of the National Service Framework for the elderly. (Rouse et al 2001) What is collaboration between organisations? The transition from the concept â€Å"Empire† culture to the â€Å"Seamless interfaceâ€Å" culture is effectively based on the concept of practical and effective collaboration. (Powell, J. Lovelock, R. 1996) The changes that were proposed in a number of recent pieces of welfare based legislation (after the 1993 changes in the community care organisation and the National Service Frameworks to quote just two), have all espoused collaboration as their raison d’à ªtre. Clearly, in consideration of the elderly, there are numerous organisations that can potentially collaborate (Appendix Two), and all have their strengths, weaknesses and pitfalls. Let us examine one important area as an illustration. If we consider the welfare/health service interface. Primary healthcare teams control access to secondary and community health services through patient referrals. Social Services equally manage funding for home care and residential services including nursing home facilities and control access through assessment and care management. (Glendenning C et al 1998). When it is the case that, in terms of professional organisations, one depends upon another for access to services, their ability to obtain their own organisational or professional objectives can be severely compromised. (Haralambos M et al 2000). In practical terms, the GP is dependent on the social services to fund the appropriate facility whether it is a nursing home, domicillary enhancement services to keep a patient out of an acute medical hospital bed, or other forms of social support to facilitate the timely discharge of a patient from hospital. The arguments for collaboration are so overwhelmingly obvious that they hardly need repeating here. In real terms, the consideration of collaboration between organisations more analytically hinges on the question, â€Å"which organisations?†. The example that we have given is a fairly common collaboration and is therefore enshrined in both common working practice and also with legislative and regulatory boundaries. The advent of the National Service Frameworks have helped promote commonly recognised goals and objectives across the health/welfare spectrum of care, although a number of financial issues and problems with the organisational culture interface can commonly difficulty in everyday practice (Wierzbicki Reynolds 2001). Other organisations have to liaise and collaborate with the Social Services Dept. such as local and national voluntary support groups and specialist interest support groups, (often disease process based,) and these generally have much looser procedural issues and practices which may need different considerations. We shall discuss these in greater depth elsewhere in this essay. What are the problems? Taking a broad overview of the scope and possible nature of collaborative enterprises. Problems can arise from a number of organisational areas. Financial considerations, especially financial accountability, cause problems when this eventuality has not specifically been legislated for. Appendix Three sets out many of the potential pitfalls in this area. We observe that the health based services are essentially free to the patient whereas Welfare is largely means tested and thereby rendered vulnerable to changes of political direction and pressure. (Audit commission 2004) Another major area of potential difficulty stems from the historical development of professional language, terminology and working practices that each collaboration can interface. Client, patient , in need, deserving, dependent – all are terms frequently used by various healthcare professionals, but with different interpretations and nuances of meaning. Collaboration will inevitably require a more exact and specific vocabulary to be evolved and agreed. (Garlick C 1996). Collaboration inevitably means information sharing. The â€Å"Empire† concepts and constructs take a long time to die and be eradicated, but the seamless interface can only realistically be expected to work if all available information is shared. This raises serious problems of confidentiality if information is expected to be shared between healthcare professionals and collaborating agencies from the voluntary sector for example. (Cameron,A et al 2000). What are the solutions? Management solutions can be both complex and difficult to introduce or impose. By virtue of the potentially disparate nature of the collaborative partnerships that we are considering, there is clearly no â€Å"one size fits all† solution. It is for this reason that general principles are more useful than specific suggestions. The management of change (and therefore the solutions) is perhaps the most fundamental element in the discussion. Visions, ideas and directions are of little value if they cannot be translated into reality. (Bennis et al 1999). We can turn to the writings of Marinker (1997) who points to the fact that systems change, and indeed change management itself, are responsive to the acceptance of a division between concordance and compliance. People generally respond better to suggestion, reason and coercion rather than imposition of regulations and arbitrary change. The models that rely on publication and dissemination of information are generally more likely to be well received and more fully implemented, particularly if it is peer driven. (Shortell SM et al 1998) This is perfectly illustrated by the Davidmann Report (Davidmann 1988) on the debacle of the introduction of the Griffiths Reforms in the 80s. (Griffiths Report 1983). His major findings were that the Reforms failed because changes were imposed rather than managed Collaborative solutions should only realistically be made after a careful consideration of the evidence base underpinning that proposed change. (Berwick D 2005). Modern management theory calls for appropriate evaluation of the need for collaborative proposals by considering the evidence base on which the situation could be improved, its implementation by making managers aware of the need for change and proactively encouraging them in the means of implementation, and then instituting a review process to evaluate the effectiveness of the measures when they have been in place. (Berwick D. 1996) (Appendix five) Models of Collaboration There are a great many models of professional collaboration cited in the literature. In order to make an illustrated analysis, we will return to the specific example of the Health/welfare interface to consider some of the models in that area. In general terms, all of the models follow the functional structure Plan, Implement and Review (expanded in Appendix Five). The Outreach (or Outposting) model appears to be a commonly adopted model (McNally D et al. 1996), whereby a social worker is attached to a primary healthcare team. In terms of our analytical assessment here we should note that such arrangements, if subjected to process evaluation, generally promote progression towards a seamless interface in areas such as: The sharing of information and in mutual understanding of the different professional roles, responsibilities, and organisational frameworks within which social and primary health services are delivered. It is also noted that such benefits are generally greater if the implementation of such models is preceded by exercises including team building or joint training exercises. (Pithouse A et al 1996) Other models include the Joint Needs Assessments model in which service commissioning between primary health and social services teams have a common assessment base (Wistow G et al. 1998). This does not appear to have been as successful as the outreach model, and has had a rather variable history (Booth T 1999). Collaboration here has involved a variable number of agencies but not always the primary healthcare teams. The new primary care groups will have a strategic role in the commissioning of a broad range of health and welfare services. All NHS organisations have a clear imposed duty of collaboration and partnership with the local authorities (NHSE 1997) Collaboration in the form of joint commissioning models have also been tried. They tend to fall into one of three patterns including Area or locality as basis for joint commissioning Joint commissioning at practice level Joint commissioning at patient level None have been in place for long enough for a realistic assessment of their relative strengths and weaknesses to be evaluated yet. (Glendenning C et al 1998) Models- Interprofessional/teams One of the more successful models of collaboration is that of the multidisciplinary pre-discharge assessment team which, when it works well, can be considered a model of good collaborative working (Richards et al 1998). This requires all of the elements referred to above to be successfully implemented and to be in place if the optimum result for the client is to be obtained. Such a model calls for professional integration and collaboration of the highest order if National Service Framework Standard Two is to be fully realised. The framework calls for all concerned professionals to: Ensure that older people are treated as individuals and that they receive appropriate and timely packages of care which meet their needs as individuals, regardless of health and social services boundaries. It is, in our estimation, the crossing of these boundaries that, perhaps, is the key to collaboration. Review Collaboration as a concept is comparatively easy to define. Any dictionary will give a reasonable definition. As a workable model of practice, it is far more nebulous and hard to achieve. In this review we have tried to consider the barriers and management problems that make it harder to achieve together with the mechanisms which will militate towards successful implementation. We have identified financial and cultural barriers, as well as structural and organisational ones equally we have pointed towards models of collaboration which appear to be working well. It would appear to be the case that the prime factor in the success or ultimate failure of a collaborative exercise, is the success and management skills with which it is initially introduced.   References Arblaster. L. et al (1998) Achieving the impossible : interagency collaboration to address the housing, health and social care needs of people able to live in ordinary housing: Bristol Policy press and Joseph Rowntree. 1998 Audit commission (2004) Older People – Independence and well-being: The challenge for public services London: The Audit Commission 2004 Bennis, Benne Chin (Eds.) 1999 The Planning of Change (2nd Edition).. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York: 1999. Berwick D. 1996 A primer on the improvement of systems. BMJ 1996; 312: 619-622 Berwick D 2005 Broadening the view of evidence-based medicine Qual. Saf. Health Care, Oct 2005; 14: 315 316. Booth T. 1999 Collaboration between health and social services; a case study of joint care planning. Policy Polit 1999; 19: 23-49. Cameron,A. Brown H and Eby,M.A. (2000) Factors Promoting and Obstacles Hindering Joint Working; School for Policy Studies, Bristol. 2000 Davidmann 1988 Reorganising the National Health Service: An Evaluation of the Griffiths Report HMSO : London 1988 DOH 2000 Department of Health (2000) The NHS Plan. A Plan for Investment. A Plan for Reform. Cm 4818. London: The Stationery Office Garlick C. 1996 Social solution. Nurs Times 1996; 92: 28. Glendenning C. Rummery K, Clarke R 1998 From collaboration to commissioning: developing relationships between primary health and social services BMJ 1998;317:122-125 Griffiths Report 1983 NHS Management Inquiry Report DHSS, 1983 Oct 25 Haralambos M, M Holborn 2000 Sociology: themes and perspectives, Harper Collins 2000. Marinker M.1997 From compliance to concordance: achieving shared goals BMJ 1997;314:747–8. McNally D Mercer N. 1996 Social workers attached to practices. Project report. Knowsley: Knowsley Metropolitan Borough and St Helens and Knowsley Health , 1996. NHSE 1997 National Health Service Executive. Health action zones invitation to bid. Leeds: NHS Executive , 1997(EL(97)65.) Pithouse A, Butler I. 1994 Social work attachment in a group practice; a case study in success? Res Policy Plann 1994; 12: 16-20. Powell, J. and Lovelock, R. (1996), Reason and commitment: is communication possible in contested areas of social work theory and practice?, in Ford, P. and Hayes, P. (eds), Educating for Social Work: Arguments for Optimism, Aldershot, Avebury, pp. 76–94. Richards, Joanna Coast, David J Gunnell, Tim J Peters, John Pounsford, and Mary-Anne Darlow 1998 Randomised controlled trial comparing effectiveness and acceptability of an early discharge, hospital at home scheme with acute hospital care BMJ, Jun 1998; 316: 1796 – 1801 Rouse, Jolley, and Read 2001 National service frameworks BMJ, Dec 2001; 323: 1429. Shortell SM, Bennett CL, Byck GR. 1998 Assessing the impact of continuous quality improvement on clinical practice: what will it take to accelerate progress? Milbank Quarterly 1998; 76: 593-624 Wierzbicki and Reynolds 2001 National service frameworks financial implications are huge BMJ, Sep 2001; 321: 705. Wistow G, Brookes T, eds.1998 Joint planning and joint management. , London: Royal Institute for Public Affairs, 1998. ############################################################ 25.1.06 PDG Word count 2,290

What are Ontology and Epistemology? Essay -- Philosophy, Truth

What are ontology and epistemology and why are they important in social science research Introduction The study of any particular science involves embracing particular and specific ontology, epistemology and methodologies that are different from each other. Ontology is the concept that defines and explains the essential types of truth (Blaikie 2009). Every field of science constitutes its own ontology and in most cases two types of ontology exists: formal ontology and domain ontology (Blaikie 2009). Formal ontology type of research always postulates something general related to reality while on the other hand domain ontology postulate something specific with regard to different types of truths (Blaikie 2009). On its part epistemology constitute a science concept that defines how human and the general population of the world know and reason the particular truth. The two concepts are differentiated by particular assumptions that are associated with each of them. For instance assumptions associated with ontology include: shallow realist, conceptual realist, cautious realist, depth real ist and idealist (Blaikie 2009). On the other hand assumptions related to epistemology include: empiricism, rationalism, falsificationism, neo-realism and constructionism (Blaikie 2009). Therefore the purpose of this essay will be to define objectivism and inteprativism as related to ontology, define positivism and interpretavism as related to epistemology, explain how ontology and epistemology are linked and how they influence each other, before lastly looking at how important ontology and epistemology are. Objectivism and interprativism in ontology Blaike (2000) asserted that ontology to involve, â€Å"claims and assumptions that are made about natur... ...oherent research practice functions to collect and communicate information about the world, a scenario enabled by key concepts of ontology and epistemology. Conclusion Social reality in general is viewed as a complex of causal relations between events that are depicted as patchwork of relationships between variables. Generally, causes of human behavior are regarded as being external to the individual and knowledge is seen to be derived from sensory experience by means of experimental or comparative analysis and concepts and generalizations are summaries of particular observations. In reality, claims have been made about what is observed with the senses is what is real and that scientific laws are similar with empirical regularities. In summary, key concepts of ontology and epistemology have played important role in shaping and guiding social research processes.

Research review example Essay

Please note that ethical standards of peer reviewing constrain me [JP] to give you the original manuscript. I also had to anonymize identifying information in the review. This review is meant as an example of the style used in writing a review; you do not have to understand all the details. Please note that this review is longer than the one you are requested to write. This is a highly interesting study on a timely subject, the impact of pornography use in adolescence on relationship intimacy in early adulthood. Based on Zillman’s programmatic piece about the â€Å"influence of unrestrained pornography† on adolescents and more recent research on teenagers’ use of internet pornography, the study develops a model on how adolescent pornography use may affect relationship intimacy in young adulthood. The study concludes that there is, â€Å"at best, minimal support for Zillmann’s claim that prolonged exposure to pornography is associated with sexual callousness† (p. 13). The strengths of the study include, in my view, the focus on an under-researched dependent variable; its attempt to build and test a model; and the (attempted) investigation of gender differences. The weaknesses include, in my view, the theoretical underdevelopment of the model and several severe methodological problems. Theoretical development of the model By the standards of Journal [ANONYMIZED], the theory section (pp. 2-4) is very short. While in journals of other disciplines (e.g., Journal of Adolescent Health) such a short introduction is requested, pieces in [ANONYMIZED] are expected to be more specific about the theoretical underpinnings of the study. Although brevity is always preferable, a study that develops and tests a new model does require a somewhat more thorough conceptual definition of the various influences in the model and, most importantly, a rationale for these influences. Conceptual definitions and rationale for the components in the model: The model has four components, exposure to pornography, pornographic realism, acceptance of recreational sex, and relationship intimacy. However, on p. 2, many more concepts are outlined (based on Zillmann’s paper): habituation, cultivation effects in terms of perceived sexual behaviors, distrust in intimate partners, abandonment of exclusivity as a norm of romantic relationships, and greater endorsement of promiscuity. None of these concepts is tested. Moreover, on p. 3, several other concepts are mentioned, including cynical attitudes about love, sexual pleasure without affection, sexual callousness, and decreasing emotional attachment. While the latter concepts are related to what is tested, they are not the same. Scanning through the studies that Zillmann and Bryant published in the 1980s, it becomes clear that they have probably something else in mind when they talk about *sexual* callousness than â€Å"an impaired ability to form intimate relationships† (p. 4). Finally, it remains unclear why pornographic realism is an important addition to the model suggested by Zillmann. This is certainly not to say that the paper’s model is unrelated to Zillmann’s ideas, but the paper should aim for more conceptual clarity. Key concepts need to be defined. Moreover, it needs to be outlined how the key concepts of the model relate to Zillmann’s ideas as well as when and why they differ. Rationale for the influences hypothesized in the model: The model hypothesizes that recreational attitudes toward sex mediate the effect of pornography on intimacy. Pornographic realism is included as a covariate of pornography use (although it is claimed that it is investigated as a mediator, p. 4). However, the rationale for hypothesizing these processes remains vague. First, how precisely are recreational attitudes related to sexual socialization and the sexual script concept (p. 3)? How, and why, are these attitudes affected by pornography? These questions should not be answered on the basis of empirical regularities (as done on pp. 3-4), but on the basis of more elaborate theorizing. Second, why is pornographic realism a covariate (at least in the model tested)? From the quote on p. 4, it rather seems a mediator. This needs some clarification and elaboration, too. Gender differences The analysis of gender differences occupies considerable space in the analysis and discussion. However, a rationale is largely lacking why such differences need to be investigated. There is sufficient evidence that females use pornography less often than males do (i.e., gender as a direct predictor), but it is crucial to outline why the processes hypothesized may differ by gender (i.e., gender as a moderator). Methodological problems I would like to stress that any research on the issue of the study is admirable, given the enormous ethical, practical, methodological, statistical issues involved. In my evaluation, I take this into account. That said, I do have to raise some potentially unpleasant questions about the design of the study; operationalization of the key measure; procedure/ sample; and analysis. Design and operationalization of key measure The paper aims at testing a causal model, but relies on cross-sectional data. The paper outlines on p. 4 that the study includes a time component by asking respondents to indicate their pornography use at ages 14 and 17. Several problems arise. First, cross-sectional data do not permit causal conclusions related to media effects. At the very least, this needs to be acknowledged explicitly and prominently. Also, language suggesting causal relations should be avoided. Second, asking respondents retrospectively about their pornography use at the ages of 14 and 17 raises some questions. Why at ages 14 and 17? Adolescence usually spans the period between age 12 and 17. Why was exposure not measured, for instance, for age 12 (early adolescence), age 15 (middle), and age 17 (late)? Third, self-reported retrospective measures of sensitive behavior are prone to multiple biases, most notably memory bias and social desirability bias. These biases already plague measures that relate, for instance, to the â€Å"past week.† But how can such measures meaningfully be applied to behavior that happened, for the oldest respondents, 11 years ago? Fourth, what exactly were the response categories? â€Å"Never† suggests a vague-quantifier scale (e.g., never, rarely,  sometimes, often, very often), which carries a lot of problems, most notably the problem that vague quantifiers leave it up to the respondent to decide what the categories mean. However, the positive anchor of the scale is â€Å"every day.† Was the scale thus a scale asking about specific frequencies (e.g., once a week, less than once a week). Again, how can such frequencies be assessed validly after so much time? Any information on the validity and reliability of the measure along with a rationale for the operationalization is highly welcome. Fifth, how does this measurement strategy assess â€Å"prolonged† exposure, the key concept in Zillmann’s paper? Assessing retrospectively the use of pornography does not tell us much about the trajectory of porn use. Finally, a retrospective measure is not the same as a measure taken at a certain point in the past, in contrast to what is claimed on p. 4. I perfectly understand that longitudinal research is cumbersome, particularly in that area. That said, it seems difficult to see how the retrospective measurement of pornography use tackles the causal problems inherent in cross-sectional research. In sum, there are several serious issues with the operationalization of one of the key variables, which urgently need to be addressed. Procedure/ Sample The paper is unfortunately very brief about the procedure and sample of the survey. Given the self-selection problems in sex research, I was surprised to read that few precautions were taken to minimize this bias. Why was snowballing not avoided, but even encouraged (p. 5)? Why did the study not include some simple quotas, most notably for gender (see below)? Was there a control of whether a particular respondent filled in the survey multiple times? In addition, I assume that informed consent was explicitly asked for, but this should be mentioned briefly. Finally, is there an indication of how many respondents were contacted and what the response rate was? There are also several important questions about the sample. First, why was the study limited to sexually active students? Sexual experience may create a limiting boundary condition for what the paper is interested in. Second, why was the age frame limited to 18- to 25-year olds? Is this related to the theory of emerging adulthood? Third, why was the study limited to university students? We complain about such convenience samples in experimental research. There  may be even more concerns about such samples in survey research. While the concerns raised in the previous paragraphs address very severe shortcomings, they may even be multiplied by the fact that twice as many women as men filled in the questionnaire. This is a crucial problem because the basic conclusion of the paper is that the model only works for women, but not for men. To be sure, the paper mentions these shortcomings in the discussion section, but that does unfortunately not reduce its importance. Table 2 shows small to moderate zero-order correlations for men and women. However, with twice as many women as men in the sample, an r = -.11 is significant for women, while an r = .13 is not significant for men. Both for men and women, the correlations are in the same direction. I guess that, with an equal number of men and women (e.g., 350 each), the model would largely hold for both. This would also be a more reasonable sample size in terms of statistical power consideration. In conclusion, there is reason to believe that one of the main conclusions of the paper is a result of a severe shortcoming in the sample procedure of the study. Analysis The general problems with the gender analysis notwithstanding, I was wondering why the paper does not apply a multiple-group analysis. This is a more rigorous way of testing whether the various paths differ between women and men than the strategy currently employed. I was wondering whether the SEM analysis used item-parceling strategies. Otherwise, there need to be more manifest indicators in the models. Finally, the statistical testing of indirect effects (i.e., whether they differ significantly from zero) has become a standard procedure and should be included. Discussion In the light of the problems raised above, some of the conclusions raised in the discussion section may need some reconsideration. (This is my opinion, and the authors may or may not follow them). First, I am hesitant to agree with the paper that the findings have â€Å"little if any practical significance† (p. 10). The discussions about effect sizes in media effects research in particular and the social sciences in general have been outlined elsewhere and do not have to be repeated here. Against that backdrop, an explained variance of 8% (with two predictor variables related to pornography) in  recreational attitudes and of 16% in relationship intimacy does not seem trivial to me. It may indeed be that other variables (family, peers etc.) have a greater influence, but this needs some more backing in order to contextualize the effects found. I agree with the paper that the moral panic that surrounds pornography finds no support in any research published so far. However, this does not mean that the effects found in this paper and elsewhere are trivial, at least when considered in the context of media effects research and against the backdrop of the methodological and statistical problems that this kind of research faces. Second, it seems to me that the paper contradicts itself when, on the one hand, it rejects main effects as too simplistic (p. 3) and, on the other hand, describes the found indirect effects as practically insignificant. No serious media effects researcher would disagree that media effects are typically not direct and that a focus on the â€Å"how† and â€Å"why† of such effects is important. If we can explain how precisely media affect people, then this may have enormous practical significance, especially if we can outline which people may be affected and which may not (in line with Malamuth ’s ideas). Third, I agree that love maps and sexual scripts may explain sexual attitudes and behavior, probably even better than media use (p. 11). But it remains unclear to me where, precisely, this is tested in the model. Some clarification may be helpful. Fourth, it may also be helpful to specify how the distinction between imagined and real sex lives relates to the model tested, apart from outlining that perceptions of pornographic realism may never fully translate into people’s actual sex lives. In sum, this is important and interesting research. However, the theoretical, conceptual, and methodological weaknesses currently outweigh the strengths of the paper so that its contribution to our knowledge about how the use of pornography affects relationship intimacy in adulthood is limited.

How Did Christianity Succeed In Becoming So Widespread In The Period Up To Diocletian - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2296 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category History Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Did you like this example? How did Christianity succeed in becoming so widespread in the period up to Diocletian despite the Roman persecution of Christians? It took Christianity a little under three hundred years to develop from a small, heretical Jewish cult based in the eastern provinces into the universal religion of the Roman Empire with churches and bishops ranging from Antioch and Edessa in the east to Lyons and Toledo in the west, and encompassing the North African cities of Carthage and Alexandria in the south. Just how an often persecuted sect managed to accomplish this is a complex issue that cannot be fully examined within the scope of this essay; rather it will focus on some aspects of early Christianity that allowed it to flourish and which could withstand the persecutions that took place from the second to the third centuries, concentrating on the eastern provinces, specifically Judaea, Phoenicia, Syria, Galatia and Bithynia-Pontus. (Chadwick, 1967) It is impossible to know what percentage of the population of the Empire considered themselves Christian. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How Did Christianity Succeed In Becoming So Widespread In The Period Up To Diocletian" essay for you Create order One suggestion is ten percent but this is an estimate and, as Brown points out, it is more significant that during the third century Christian communities grew quickly (Brown, 2013). The early Christian sources cannot be relied upon to provide an accurate picture, as Lane Fox notes; Christian authors â€Å"were quite uncritical in their use of words like ‘all’ and ‘everywhere’† (Lane Fox, 1988, p. 269). Eusebius, for example, described how the Apostles had been sent across the globe to preach: Thomas was sent to Parthia, Andrew to Scythia, John to Asia and Peter was allotted the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (Eusebius, 3:1). In order to consider what impact persecution had on the spread of Christianity, it is necessary to consider the way Christianity spread; and in particular what was it about this religion that set it apart from the pagan cults (and Judaism) that could both attract followers and help it withstand persecution. There are a number of reasons why Christianity flourished in the period between the end of the first century and Diocletian’s Great Persecution at the start of the fourth. The nature of Christianity and its emphasis on charity and hospitality; a shared sacred text; the close-knit structure of the early Church; the way it appealed to all levels of society; the very act of persecution itself, the nature of the pagan cults it was competing with and the wide-ranging trade routes across the Empire, are just a few. (Chadwick, 1967; Lane Fox, 1988) Christian groups shared a set of beliefs and ideals based around the preaching of salvation and it can be argued that this unity of beliefs is what strengthened Christianity and allowed it to flourish. Christians shared a meal recollecting the sacrifice of their saviour and were encouraged to regard themselves as a family, calling each other â€Å"brother† and â€Å"sister† and to greet each other with a kiss. Individual communities possessed similar structures, particularly during the late second and third centuries, which emphasised their unity. This was certainly the view of Origen when responding to the allegations of the second-century philosopher Celsus who acknowledged the unity of Christians but believed it to be based on â€Å"no trustworthy foundation† other than their â€Å"unity in revolt (†¦) and fear of outsiders† (3:14, Chadwick, 1953, p. 136). Origen states that Christianity does have a firm foundation in divine doctrine and God’s law. (3:15, Chadwick, 1953). The message that everyone was subject to the same divine law and could achieve salvation through renunciation of sins was unique to Christianity. This was a message upon which persecution could have no impact; indeed persecution offered devout Christians the opportunity to emulate their saviour and make the ultimate sacrifice for their faith; persecution encouraged martyrdom. Whilst elements of early Christian practice, such as the celebratory meal and offering practical support for fellow supporters, can be seen in some pagan cults at this time, what set Christianity apart was its shared sacred text. It must be acknowledged that Christianity and Judaism are very similar in this regard, however, the New Testament, works by Origen and other early Christian philosophers and those condemning the Gnostic practices of the Coptic Church as heresy show that different Christian groups were discussing and exchanging views on important topics. In this way early Christian thinkers, the ‘Church Fathers’ were formulating a common, orthodox canon of beliefs which were set down in documents that were shared amongst the communities. (Clark, 2004) The early Christians did not worship in what we would recognise as churches; they held assemblies which acted as a family unit, providing not only spiritual but practical support to its members. (Chadwick, 1697; Brown, 2 013) They met in the homes of individual Christians and these houses were extended to accommodate the growing community, as at Dura Europos in Mesopotamia, a private house which was extended at some point in the 240s to add a hall large enough to accommodate up to sixty people (Lane Fox, 1988). It is perhaps significant, therefore, that no Imperial edict against the Christians, even that of Decian, specifically mentioned destroying churches until the Great Persecution of Diocletian at the start of the fourth century. Whilst the community might consider itself a church, there was no physical building, like a synagogue, which pinpointed them within the landscape of the town or city. In effect the church was mobile and could relocate as and when persecution made it necessary and meant Christianity could spread easily. One of the key principles of Christianity was its emphasis on acts of charity and supporting those in need, based around Matthew 25:38-40. (Clark 2004) No other religious group in the Empire held provision for the poor as a key doctrine, but Christians were duty-bound to offer not only spiritual but practical help to those less fortunate than themselves. (Chadwick, 1967) Eusebius quotes a letter of Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, describing how Christians helped nurse the sick and dying of all religions during an outbreak of plague and helped to bury the dead, whereas the pagans abandoned the sick (even family members), to their fate. (Eusebius, 7: 22 7-10) As Clark (2004), following MacMullen, notes; nursing the sick might convince people that Christians had a special religious protection; their belief in suffering and salvation and stories of healing miracles could, perhaps, be more effective than doctrine in winning converts. The notion of charity was not confined to offering comfort and solace; one of the ideas Christianity had inherited from Judaism was giving alms for â€Å"the remission of sin† (Brown, 2013, p. 69). The idea that money earned in this world, by whatever means, could help its owner earn their place in the next through the remission of his or her sins meant that churches were able to accumulate wealth. The pagan temples of the large cities depended on donations from the wealthy whereas the average Christians making donations for the salvation of their souls were tradesmen. This meant that during times of financial disaster, as in the third century, the Christian communities were better able to withstand a crisis. The church developed structures and systems to ensure this wealth was distributed to where it was needed and Christians acquired a reputation for taking care of their own; widows and orphans as well as the sick and the destitute were all embraced in this institutionalised alms giving. (Brown, 2013; Clark, 2004)Thus the knowledge that your community was duty bound to offer practical assistance in times of need could easily be argued as a contributing factor to the sp read of Christianity, again one on which persecution would have little impact. This did not mean that Christianity developed into a religion of the poor; rather it embraced all ranks from slaves and tradesmen up to the higher echelons of society: Marcia the concubine of Emperor Commodus was Christian, as were King Agbar VIII of Osrhoene and Julius Africanus from Palestine (Brown, 2013 and Clark 2004). When considering the impact persecutions had on the spread of Christianity, the nature of these persecutions has to be taken into consideration. During the second and third centuries, there were two periods of persecution: the sporadic, isolated persecutions that were confined to specific areas during the second and early third centuries; and the Emperor led persecutions of Decian and Valerian which culminated in the Great Persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius. Our best evidence for the nature of these earlier persecutions comes from Pliny’s letter to Trajan, written c. 112 (Ep. 10:96, Radice, 1969, p. 293). Pliny, governor of Bithynia-Pontus, wrote to the Emperor asking for guidance on how to treat Christians arrested in his province. The letter describes how he had tortured two female slaves to obtain information about the activities of Christians and asks for advice on how he should conduct trials of suspected Christians who were brought before him as a result of anonymous allegations. Trajan’s reply makes it clear that only known Christians should be prosecuted and anonymous allegations should not be considered and those simply suspected of being Christian should not be sought out. This shows that during this time there was no clear policy of persecution coming from the Roman authorities. Similarly, Eusebius includes a letter from Trajan’s successor, Hadrian, written to Pliny’s successor, Minicius Fundanus, reaffirming this position; Christians should not be sought out directly, but those correctly accuse d under Roman law, should be punished (Eusebius, 4:9). Once again Eusebius’ evidence must be approached with caution; as with any Christian author he cannot be considered a reliable witness to the persecution of his own kind. When taken together, however, the evidence of both the pagan Roman official Pliny and the Christian Eusebius does indicate that there was no official policy of widespread persecution of Christians during the second century. Moreover, as St Croix (1963), illustrates, accusations against individuals were not likely to be made falsely as the person making the allegation had to carry out the prosecution, rendering themselves liable for a charge of calumnia (malicious prosecution) if they could not make a satisfactory case against the alleged Christian. Decian’s edict of 250 represents the changing situations of both the Empire and the Christian church. By this period Christianity had spread across the whole Empire; an empire which had been suffering from years of civil war and was in something of a crisis and in need of assistance from its gods (Clark, 2004). The edict issued by Decian in 249-250 did not specifically target Christianity, though Christian writers chose to interpret it as a direct attack; rather it required all citizens to make sacrifices to the gods and obtain proof of this in the form of a special certificate. It is clear that many Christians did suffer as a result of this edict; Babylas of Antioch and Alexander of Jerusalem were amongst many notable church leaders who lost their lives. Others, however, preferred to go into hiding or buy certificates from friendly magistrates. The impact of this edict was, therefore, twofold: it created a new generation of martyrs from those who refused to sacrifice and were punished for it; and caused schism within the church regarding what to do about those (mainly in the east) who fled or bought their certificates. Neither had any detrimental effect on the sp read of Christianity; martyrs were admired and acted as inspiration for the faithful and the debate regarding those who went into hiding helped to develop Church doctrine. As noted above, persecution created martyrs who were held up as examples to be followed: men and women who had endured physical pain and suffering like Jesus on the cross. Christian writers praised their bravery and courage, recording their heroic suffering in Acts and Passions which were copied and disseminated throughout the Christian world, raising them to the status of saint. Martyrdom and the development of the cult of saints are other key topics to consider when looking at the spread of Christianity and its reaction to persecution, but ones which cannot be discussed here. The ideas discussed above: the nature of Christianity, the unity provided by shared sacred texts and church organisation, the emphasis on charity and personal redemption; are just a few of the reasons this fledging cult was able to flourish and spread throughout the Roman Empire, covering not only the Eastern Provinces but also those in the west. There has been little room here to give them the full discussion they deserve, or to consider other factors such as the wide-ranging trade routes across the Empire that allowed Christians to travel and spread their faith; or to consider the way families were converted. What can be seen, however, is that Christianity was a religion with a unified belief structure that appealed to a wide cross-section of society and which offered practical help for those in need, including members of society that were often marginalised. Persecution did not stop the spread of Christianity, nor did it drive it underground. In the face of persecution most Christians remained steadfast; secure in the knowledge that their physical pain and suffering in this life would lead to reward in the next. Reference List: Primary Sources: Eusebius, Church History [online] Available from: Christian Classics Ethereal Library [online] https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.i.html [Accessed 14 February 2015] Chadwick, H. (1953) Origen, Contra Celsum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Radice, B. (1969) The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Secondary Works: Brown, P. (2013) The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A.D 200-1000. 10th Anniversary Revised Ed. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chadwick, H. (1967) The Early Church. London: Penguin. Clark, G. (2004) Christianity and Roman Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lane Fox, R. (1988) Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean world from the second century AD to the conversion of Constantine. London: Penguin. MacMullen, R. (1984) Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. St Croix, G.E.M de (1963) Why Were Early Christians Persecuted? Past and Present. 26. P. 6-38.